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Interspecies Chemical Communication in Bacterial Development.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Our view of bacteria, from the earliest observations through the heyday of antibiotic discovery, has shifted dramatically.We recognize communities of bacteria as integral and functionally important components of diverse habitats, ranging from soil collectives to the human microbiome. To function as productive communities, bacteria coordinate metabolic functions, often requiring shifts in growth and development. The hallmark of cellular development, which we characterize as physiological change in response to environmental stimuli, is a defining feature of many bacterial interspecies interactions. Bacterial communities ...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 30, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Straight PD, Kolter R Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Evolutionary Role of Upstream Open Reading Frames in Mediating Gene Regulation in Fungi.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are frequently present in the 5'- leader regions of fungal mRNAs. They can affect translation by controlling the ability of ribosomes that scan from the mRNA 5' end to reach the downstream genic reading frame. The translation of uORFs can also affect mRNA stability. For several genes, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae GCN4, S. cerevisiae CPA1, and Neurospora crassa arg-2, regulation by uORFs controls expression in response to specific physiological signals. The roles of many uORFs that are identified by genome-level approaches, as have been initiated for Saccharomyces, Aspergillus,...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Hood HM, Neafsey DE, Galagan J, Sachs MS Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Single-Cell Ecophysiology of Microbes as Revealed by Raman Microspectroscopy or Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry Imaging.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
An astonishing diversity of microorganisms thrives on our planet and their activities are fundamental for the functioning of all ecosystems including the human body. Consequently, detailed insights into the functions performed by microorganisms in their natural environment are required to understand human biology and the biology of the world around us and to lay the foundations for targeted manipulation of microbial communities. Isotope-labeling techniques combined with molecular detection tools are frequently used by microbial ecologists to directly link structure and function of microbial communities and to monitor m...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Wagner M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

What Sets Bacillus anthracis Apart from Other Bacillus Species?Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Bacillus anthracis is the cause of anthrax, and two large plasmids are essential for toxicity: pXO1, which contains the toxin genes, and pXO2, which encodes a capsule. B. anthracis forms a highly monomorphic lineage within the B. cereus group, but strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus exist that are genetically closely related to the B. anthracis cluster. During the past five years B. cereus strains that contain the pXO1 virulence plasmid were discovered, and strains with both pXO1 and pXO2 have been isolated from great apes in Africa. Therefore, the presence of pXO1 and pXO2 no longer principally separates B...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Kolstø AB, Tourasse NJ, Okstad OA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Plants, Mycorrhizal Fungi, and Bacteria: A Network of Interactions.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
This review focuses on interactions among plants, mycorrhizal fungi, and bacteria, testing the hypothesis whether mycorrhizas can be defined as tripartite associations. After summarizing the main biological features of mycorrhizas, we illustrate the different types of interaction occurring between mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria, from loosely associated microbes to endobacteria. We then discuss, in the context of nutritional strategies, the mechanisms that operate among members of the consortium and that often promote plant growth. Release of active molecules, including volatiles, and physical contact among the partners...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Bonfante P, Anca IA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

The Expanding World of Methylotrophic Metabolism.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
In the past few years, the field of methylotrophy has undergone a significant transformation in terms of discovery of novel types of methylotrophs, novel modes of methylotrophy, and novel metabolic pathways. This time has also been marked by the resolution of long-standing questions regarding methylotrophy and the challenge of long-standing dogmas. This chapter is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of metabolism of methylotrophic bacteria. Instead we focus on significant recent discoveries that are both refining and transforming the current understanding of methylotrophy as a metabolic phenomenon. We also r...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Chistoserdova L, Kalyuzhnaya MG, Lidstrom ME Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Lipid Signaling in Pathogenic Fungi.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Lipid signaling in pathogenic fungi has been studied to determine the role of these pathways in fungal biology and human infections. Owing to their unique nature, they may represent targets for future antifungal treatments. Farnesol signaling was characterized as a quorum-sensing molecule, with exposure inhibiting filamentation. Research has shown involvement in both the Ras1-adenylate cyclase and MAP kinase pathways. In species of Aspergillus, farnesol exposure induces apoptosis-like changes and alterations in ergosterol synthesis. Eicosanoid production has been characterized in several pathogenic fungi, utilizing hos...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - May 18, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Rhome R, Del Poeta M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Regulation of Translation Initiation by RNA Binding Proteins.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
RNA binding proteins are capable of regulating translation initiation by a variety of mechanisms. Although the vast majority of these regulatory mechanisms involve translational repression, one example of translational activation has been characterized in detail. The RNA recognition targets of these regulatory proteins exhibit a wide range in structural complexity, with some proteins recognizing complex pseudoknot structures and others binding to simple RNA hairpins and/or short repeated single-stranded sequences. In some instances the bound protein directly competes with ribosome binding, and in other instances the bo...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 22, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Babitzke P, Baker CS, Romeo T Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Resurrected Pandemic Influenza Viruses.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Influenza viruses continue to pose a major global public health problem. There is a need to better understand the pathogenicity and transmission of pandemic influenza viruses so that we may develop improved methods for their prevention and control. Reconstruction of the 1918 virus and studies elucidating the exceptional virulence and transmissibility of the virus are providing exciting new insights into this devastating pandemic strain. The primary approach has been to reconstruct and analyze recombinant viruses, in which genes of the 1918 virus are replaced with genes of contemporary influenza viruses of lesser virule...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 22, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Tumpey TM, Belser JA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Chemotaxis-Like Regulatory Systems: Unique Roles in Diverse Bacteria.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Bacteria sense the chemical world using a variety of mechanisms that include the frequently described two-component system (TCS), which comprises a sensor kinase and response regulator, to regulate gene expression in response to environmental cues. One of the best and most widely studied versions of the TCS is the system that controls chemotaxis in Escherichia coli. The chemotaxis machinery includes components not found in other TCS to regulate motility and is therefore an exception to the rule for two-component signaling. The hallmark feature of the chemotaxis system is the presence of an adaptation module in which th...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 20, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Kirby JR Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthesis and Translational Quality Control.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Translating the 4-letter code of RNA into the 22-letter alphabet of proteins is a central feature of cellular life. The fidelity with which mRNA is translated during protein synthesis is determined by two factors: the availability of aminoacyl-tRNAs composed of cognate amino acid:tRNA pairs and the accurate selection of aminoacyl-tRNAs on the ribosome. The role of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases in translation is to define the genetic code by accurately pairing cognate tRNAs with their corresponding amino acids. Synthetases achieve the amino acid substrate specificity necessary to keep errors in translation to an acceptable...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 20, 2009 Category: Microbiology Authors: Ling J, Reynolds N, Ibba M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Evolution of Intracellular Pathogens.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The evolution of intracellular pathogens is considered in the context of ambiguities in basic definitions and the diversity of host-microbe interactions. Intracellular pathogenesis is a subset of a larger world of host-microbe interactions that includes amoeboid predation and endosymbiotic existence. Intracellular pathogens often reveal genome reduction. Despite the uniqueness of each host-microbe interaction, there are only a few general solutions to the problem of intracellular survival, especially in phagocytic cells. Similarities in intracellular pathogenic strategies between phylogenetically distant microbes sugge...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Casadevall A Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Evolution, Population Structure, and Phylogeography of Genetically Monomorphic Bacterial Pathogens.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Genetically monomorphic bacteria contain so little sequence diversity that sequencing a few gene fragments yields little or no information. As a result, our understanding of their evolutionary patterns presents greater technical challenges than exist for genetically diverse microbes. These challenges are now being met by analyses at the genomic level for diverse types of genetic variation, the most promising of which are single nucleotide polymorphisms. Many of the most virulent bacterial pathogens are genetically monomorphic, and understanding their evolutionary and phylogeographic patterns will help our understanding...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Achtman M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Regulation and Function of Ag43 (Flu).Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Antigen 43 (Ag43) is an abundant outer membrane protein in Escherichia coli belonging to the autotransporter family. Structure-function relationships of Ag43 proposed on the basis of experimental work and in silico analysis are discussed in context of insights derived from molecular modeling. New sequence analysis sheds light on the phylogeny of the allelic variants of the Ag43-encoding gene and identifies two distinct families that appear to be distributed between specific pathogenic and commensal isolates. The molecular mechanism that controls expression by phase variation to create population heterogeneity is discus...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: van der Woude MW, Henderson IR Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Molecular Mechanisms of the Cytotoxicity of ADP-Ribosylating Toxins.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Bacterial pathogens utilize toxins to modify or kill host cells. The bacterial ADP-ribosyltransferases are a family of protein toxins that covalently transfer the ADP-ribose portion of NAD to host proteins. Each bacterial ADP-ribosyltransferase toxin modifies a specific host protein(s) that yields a unique pathology. These toxins possess the capacity to enter a host cell or to use a bacterial Type III apparatus for delivery into the host cell. Advances in our understanding of bacterial toxin action parallel the development of biophysical and structural biology as well as our understanding of the mammalian cell. Bacteri...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Deng Q, Barbieri JT Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Evolutionary History and Phylogeography of Human Viruses.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Understanding the evolutionary history of human viruses, along with the factors that have shaped their spatial distributions, is one of the most active areas of study in the field of microbial evolution. I give an overview of our current knowledge of the genetic diversity of human viruses using comparative studies of viral populations, particularly those with RNA genomes, to highlight important generalities in the patterns and processes of viral evolution. Special emphasis is given to the major dichotomy between RNA and DNA viruses in their epidemiological dynamics and the different types of phylogeographic pattern exh...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Holmes EC Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Host Restriction of Avian Influenza Viruses at the Level of the Ribonucleoproteins.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Although transmission of avian influenza viruses to mammals, particularly humans, has been repeatedly documented, adaptation and sustained transmission in the new host is a rare event that in the case of humans may result in pandemics. Host restriction involves multiple genetic determinants. Among the known determinants of host range, key determinants have been identified on the genes coding for the nucleoprotein and polymerase proteins that, together with the viral RNA segments, form the ribonucleoproteins (RNPs). The RNP genes form host-specific lineages and harbor host-associated genetic signatures. The functional s...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Naffakh N, Tomoiu A, Rameix-Welti MA, van der Werf S Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Cell Biology of HIV-1 Infection of Macrophages.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
HIV infection of macrophages is a critically important component of viral pathogenesis and progression to AIDS. Although the virus follows the same life cycle in macrophages and T lymphocytes, several aspects of the virus-host relationship are unique to macrophage infection. Examples of these are the long-term persistence of productive infection, sustained by the absence of cell death, and the ability of progeny virus to bud into and accumulate in endocytic compartments designated multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Recently, the hypothesis that viral exploitation of the macrophage endocytic machinery is responsible for perp...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Carter CA, Ehrlich LS Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Antigenic Variation in Plasmodium falciparum.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The persistence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum during blood stage proliferation in its host depends on the successive expression of variant molecules at the surface of infected erythrocytes. This variation is mediated by the differential control of a family of surface molecules termed PfEMP1 encoded by approximately 60 var genes. Each individual parasite expresses a single var gene at a time, maintaining all other members of the family in a transcriptionally silent state. PfEMP1/var enables parasitized erythrocytes to adhere within the microvasculature, resulting in severe disease. This review high...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Scherf A, Lopez-Rubio JJ, Riviere L Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Hijacking of Host Cellular Functions by the Apicomplexa.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria subvert all the major cellular functions of their hosts. Targeted host processes include protein synthesis, membrane trafficking, modulation of gene expression, antigen presentation, and apoptosis. In recent years, it has become evident that protozoan pathogens, including members of the phylum Apicomplexa, also hijack their host cell's functions to access nutrients and to escape cellular defenses and immune responses. These obligate intracellular parasites provide superb illustrations of the subversion of host cell processes such as the recruitment and reorganization...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - September 13, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Plattner F, Soldati-Favre D Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Biology of trans-Translation.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The trans-translation mechanism is a key component of multiple quality control pathways in bacteria that ensure proteins are synthesized with high fidelity in spite of challenges such as transcription errors, mRNA damage, and translational frameshifting. trans-Translation is performed by a ribonucleoprotein complex composed of tmRNA, a specialized RNA with properties of both a tRNA and an mRNA, and the small protein SmpB. tmRNA-SmpB interacts with translational complexes stalled at the 3' end of an mRNA to release the stalled ribosomes and target the nascent polypeptides and mRNAs for degradation. In addition to qualit...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 16, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Keiler KC Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Peptide Release on the Ribosome: Mechanism and Implications for Translational Control.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Peptide release, the reaction that hydrolyzes a completed protein from the peptidyl-tRNA upon completion of translation, is catalyzed in the active site of the large subunit of the ribosome and requires a class I release factor protein. The ribosome and release factor protein cooperate to accomplish two tasks: recognition of the stop codon and catalysis of peptidyl-tRNA hydrolysis. Although many fundamental questions remain, substantial progress has been made in the past several years. This review summarizes those advances and presents current models for the mechanisms of stop codon specificity and catalysis of peptide...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Youngman EM, McDonald ME, Green R Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Rules of Engagement: Interspecies Interactions that Regulate Microbial Communities.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
We describe current approaches to study microbial ecology and progress toward predictive modeling. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology Volume 62 is September 08, 2008. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates. PMID: 18544040 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Little A, Robinson C, Peterson SB, Raffa KF, Handelsman J Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Population Structure of Toxoplasma gondii: Clonal Expansion Driven by Infrequent Recombination and Selective Sweeps.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Toxoplasma gondii is among the most successful parasites. It is capable of infecting all warm-blooded animals and causing opportunistic disease in humans. T. gondii has a striking clonal population structure consisting of three predominant lineages in North America and Europe. Clonality is associated with the recent emergence of a monomorphic version of Chr1a, which drove a selective genetic sweep within the past 10,000 years. Strains from South America diverged from those in North America some 1-2 mya; recently, however, the monomorphic Chr1a has extended into regions of South America, where it is also associated with...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 10, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Sibley LD, Ajioka JW Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Bistability, Epigenetics, and Bet-Hedging in Bacteria.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Clonal populations of microbial cells often show a high degree of phenotypic variability under homogeneous conditions. Stochastic fluctuations in the cellular components that determine cellular states can cause two distinct subpopulations, a property called bistability. Phenotypic heterogeneity can be readily obtained by interlinking multiple gene regulatory pathways, effectively resulting in a genetic logic-AND gate. Although switching between states can occur within the cells' lifetime, cells can also pass their cellular state over to the next generation by a mechanism known as epigenetic inheritance and thus perpetu...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 6, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Veening JW, Smits WK, Kuipers OP Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Ins and Outs of Major Facilitator Superfamily Antiporters.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The major facilitator superfamily (MFS) represents the largest group of secondary active membrane transporters, and its members transport a diverse range of substrates. Recent work shows that MFS antiporters, and perhaps all members of the MFS, share the same threedimensional structure, consisting of two domains that surround a substrate translocation pore. The advent of crystal structures of three MFS antiporters sheds light on their fundamental mechanism; they operate via a single binding site, alternating-access mechanism that involves a rocker-switch type movement of the two halves of the protein. In the sn-glycero...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - June 6, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Law CJ, Maloney PC, Wang DN Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Chlamydiae as Symbionts in Eukaryotes.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Members of the phylum Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that were discovered about a century ago. Although Chlamydiae are major pathogens of humans and animals, they were long recognized only as a phylogenetically well-separated, small group of closely related microorganisms. The diversity of chlamydiae, their host range, and their occurrence in the environment had been largely underestimated. Today, several chlamydia-like bacteria have been described as symbionts of free-living amoebae and other eukaryotic hosts. Some of these environmental chlamydiae might also be of medical relevance for humans. Their a...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - May 12, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Horn M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

(p)ppGpp: Still Magical?Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The fundamental details of how nutritional stress leads to elevating (p)ppGpp are questionable. By common usage, the meaning of the stringent response has evolved from the specific response to (p)ppGpp provoked by amino acid starvation to all responses caused by elevating (p)ppGpp by any means. Different responses have similar as well as dissimilar positive and negative effects on gene expression and metabolism. The different ways that different bacteria seem to exploit their capacities to form and respond to (p)ppGpp are already impressive despite an early stage of discovery. Apparently, (p)ppGpp can contribute to reg...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - May 2, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Potrykus K, Cashel M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Biosynthesis of the Iron-Molybdenum Cofactor of Nitrogenase.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The iron-molybdenum cofactor (FeMo-co), located at the active site of the molybdenum nitrogenase, is one of the most complex metal cofactors known to date. During the past several years, an intensive effort has been made to purify the proteins involved in FeMo-co synthesis and incorporation into nitrogenase. This effort is starting to provide the first insights into the structures of the FeMo-co biosynthetic intermediates and into the biochemical details of FeMo-co synthesis. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology Volume 62 is September 08, 2008. Please see http://www.annualreviews...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 22, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Rubio LM, Ludden PW Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Global Spread and Persistence of Dengue.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Dengue is a spectrum of disease caused by four serotypes of the most prevalent arthropod-borne virus affecting humans today, and its incidence has increased dramatically in the past 50 years. Due in part to population growth and uncontrolled urbanization in tropical and subtropical countries, breeding sites for the mosquitoes that transmit dengue virus have proliferated, and successful vector control has proven problematic. Dengue viruses have evolved rapidly as they have spread worldwide, and genotypes associated with increased virulence have expanded from South and Southeast Asia into the Pacific and the Americas. Th...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 22, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Kyle JL, Harris E Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

The Fortunate Professor.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
My professional life can be summarized by a quote from the Talmud. Much have I learned from my teachers More from my colleagues, But most from my students. It is the fortunate professor who learns from the student. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology Volume 62 is September 08, 2008. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates. PMID: 18345978 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - March 17, 2008 Category: Microbiology Authors: Falkow S Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

The Mechanism of Isoniazid Killing: Clarity Through the Scope of Genetics.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Isoniazid (INH) is one of the most efficient drugs for the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Despite its rather simple chemical structure, the mechanism by which INH kills M. tuberculosis is complex. A full understanding of the mechanisms of action of INH required the development of genetic tools in M. tuberculosis. Herein, we discuss the different hypotheses that have been used to describe INH action against M. tuberculosis over the past 50 years in terms of the pregenetic and genetic era. We also review the different mechanisms of INH resistance and propose what we think is the means by which INH ki...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - April 17, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Vilchèze C, Jacobs Jr WR Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Structure, assembly, and function of the spore surface layers.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Endospores formed by Bacillus, Clostridia, and related genera are encased in a protein shell called the coat. In many species, including B. subtilis, the coat is the outermost spore structure, and in other species, such as the pathogenic organisms B. anthracis and B. cereus, the spore is encased in an additional layer called the exosporium. Both the coat and the exosporium have roles in protection of the spore and in its environmental interactions. Assembly of both structures is a function of the mother cell, one of two cellular compartments of the developing sporangium. Studies in B. subtilis have revealed that the ti...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Henriques AO, Moran CP Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Microbial metabolism of reduced phosphorus compounds.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The field of bacterial phosphorus (P) metabolism has undergone a significant transformation in the past decade owing to the elucidation of widespread and diverse pathways for the metabolism of reduced P compounds. The characterization of these pathways dramatically changes the current and narrow view of P metabolism and our understanding of the forms in which P is produced and available in the environment. In this review, recent investigations into the biochemical pathways and molecular genetics of reduced P metabolism in bacteria are discussed. Particular attention is paid to recently elucidated metabolic reactions an...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: White AK, Metcalf WW Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Ecology and biotechnology of the genus Shewanella.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The shewanellae are aquatic microorganisms with worldwide distribution. Their hallmark features include unparalleled respiratory diversity and the capacity to thrive at low temperatures. As a genus the shewanellae are physiologically diverse, and this review provides an overview of the varied roles they serve in the environment and describes what is known about how they might survive in such extreme and harsh environments. In light of their fascinating physiology, these organisms have several biotechnological uses, from bioremediation of chlorinated compounds, radionuclides, and other environmental pollutants to energy...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Hau HH, Gralnick JA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

SigB-dependent general stress response in Bacillus subtilis and related gram-positive bacteria.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
One of the strongest and most noticeable responses of Bacillus subtilis cells to a range of stress and starvation stimuli is the dramatic induction of about 150 SigB-dependent general stress genes. The activity of SigB itself is tightly regulated by a complex signal transduction cascade with at least three main signaling pathways that respond to environmental stress, energy depletion, or low temperature. The SigB-dependent response is conserved in related gram-positive bacteria but is missing in strictly anaerobic or in some facultatively anaerobic gram-positive bacteria. It covers functions from nonspecific and multip...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Hecker M, Pané-Farré J, Völker U Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

The mechanism of isoniazid killing: clarity through the scope of genetics.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Isoniazid (INH) is one of the most efficient drugs for the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Despite its rather simple chemical structure, the mechanism by which INH kills M. tuberculosis is complex. A full understanding of the mechanisms of action of INH required the development of genetic tools in M. tuberculosis. Herein, we discuss the different hypotheses that have been used to describe INH action against M. tuberculosis over the past 50 years in terms of the pregenetic and genetic era. We also review the different mechanisms of INH resistance and propose what we think is the means by which INH ki...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Vilchèze C, Jacobs WR Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Toward a hyperstructure taxonomy.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Bacterial cells contain many large, spatially extended assemblies of ions, molecules, and macromolecules, called hyperstructures, that are implicated in functions that range from DNA replication and cell division to chemotaxis and secretion. Interactions between these hyperstructures would create a level of organization intermediate between macromolecules and the cell itself. To explore this level, a taxonomy is needed. Here, we describe classification criteria based on the form of the hyperstructure and on the processes responsible for this form. These processes include those dependent on coupled transcription-transla...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Norris V, den Blaauwen T, Doi RH, Harshey RM, Janniere L, Jiménez-Sánchez A, Jin DJ, Levin PA, Mileykovskaya E, Minsky A, Misevic G, Ripoll C, Saier M, Skarstad K, Thellier M Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Aggresomes and pericentriolar sites of virus assembly: cellular defense or viral design?Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Virus replication and virus assembly often occur in virus inclusions or virus factories that form at pericentriolar sites close to the microtubule organizing center or in specialized nuclear domains called ND10/PML bodies. Similar inclusions called aggresomes form in response to protein aggregation. Protein aggregates are toxic to cells and are transported along microtubules to aggresomes for immobilization and subsequent degradation by proteasomes and/or autophagy. The similarity between aggresomes and virus inclusions raises the possibility that viruses use aggresome pathways to concentrate cellular and viral protein...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Wileman T Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

As the worm turns: the earthworm gut as a transient habitat for soil microbial biomes.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The gut of the earthworm constitutes a mobile anoxic microzone to which the microorganisms of aerated soils are subjected. During gut passage, the in situ factors of the earthworm gut, which include anoxia and high concentrations of organic substrates, appear to greatly stimulate a subset of ingested soil microorganisms, including denitrifying and fermentative bacteria. The selective stimulation of ingested soil microbes by the unique microconditions of the earthworm gut (a) results in the in vivo emission of denitrification-derived dinitrogen (N(2)) and the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N(2)O) by the earthworm, and (b...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Drake HL, Horn MA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Chlorophyll biosynthesis in bacteria: the origins of structural and functional diversity.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The use of photochemical reaction centers to convert light energy into chemical energy, chlorophototrophy, occurs in organisms belonging to only five eubacterial phyla: Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chlorobi, Chloroflexi, and Firmicutes. All chlorophototrophs synthesize two types of pigments: (a) chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls, which function in both light harvesting and uniquely in photochemistry; and (b) carotenoids, which function primarily as photoprotective pigments but can also participate in light harvesting. Although hundreds of carotenoids have been identified, only 12 types of chlorophylls (Chl a, b, ...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Chew AG, Bryant DA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Biogenesis of the gram-negative bacterial outer membrane.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The cell envelope of gram-negative bacteria consists of two membranes, the inner and the outer membrane, that are separated by the periplasm. The outer membrane consists of phospholipids, lipopolysaccharides, integral membrane proteins, and lipoproteins. These components are synthesized in the cytoplasm or at the inner leaflet of the inner membrane and have to be transported across the inner membrane and through the periplasm to assemble eventually in the correct membrane. Recent studies in Neisseria meningitidis and Escherichia coli have led to the identification of several machineries implicated in these transport an...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Bos MP, Robert V, Tommassen J Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Endolithic microbial ecosystems.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The endolithic environment, the pore space in rocks, is a ubiquitous microbial habitat and an interface between biology and geology. Photosynthesis-based endolithic communities inhabit the outer centimeters of rocks exposed to the surface, and offer model systems for microbial ecology, geobiology, and astrobiology. Endolithic ecosystems are among the simplest microbial ecosystems known and as such provide tractable models for testing ecological hypotheses. Such hypotheses have been difficult to test because microbial ecosystems are extraordinarily diverse. We review here recent culture-independent, ribosomal RNA-based ...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Walker JJ, Pace NR Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Lantibiotics: peptides of diverse structure and function.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
The current need for antibiotics with novel target molecules has coincided with advances in technical approaches for the structural and functional analysis of the lantibiotics, which are ribosomally synthesized peptides produced by gram-positive bacteria. These peptides have antibiotic or morphogenetic activity and are structurally defined by the presence of unusual amino acids introduced by posttranslational modification. Lantibiotics are complex polycyclic molecules formed by the dehydration of select Ser and Thr residues and the intramolecular addition of Cys thiols to the resulting unsaturated amino acids to form l...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Willey JM, van der Donk WA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Nitrogen regulation in bacteria and archaea.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
A wide range of Bacteria and Archaea sense cellular 2-oxoglutarate (2OG) as an indicator of nitrogen limitation. 2OG sensor proteins are varied, but most of those studied belong to the PII superfamily. Within the PII superfamily, GlnB and GlnK represent a widespread family of homotrimeric proteins (GlnB-K) that bind and respond to 2OG and ATP. In some bacterial phyla, GlnB-K proteins are covalently modified, depending on enzymes that sense cellular glutamine as an indicator of nitrogen sufficiency. GlnB-K proteins are central clearing houses of nitrogen information and bind and modulate a variety of nitrogen assimilati...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Leigh JA, Dodsworth JA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Biofilm formation by plant-associated bacteria.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Plants support a diverse array of bacteria, including parasites, mutualists, and commensals on and around their roots, in the vasculature, and on aerial tissues. These microbes have a profound influence on plant health and productivity. Bacteria physically interact with surfaces to form complex multicellular and often multispecies assemblies, including biofilms and smaller aggregates. There is growing appreciation that the intensity, duration, and outcome of plant-microbe interactions are significantly influenced by the conformation of adherent microbial populations. Biofilms on different tissues have unique properties...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Danhorn T, Fuqua C Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Morphogenesis in Candida albicans.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Candida albicans is termed a dimorphic fungus because it proliferates in either a yeast form or a hyphal form. The switch between these forms is the result of a complex interplay of external and internal factors and is coordinated in part by polarity-regulating proteins that are conserved among eukaryotic cells. However, yeast and hyphal cells are not the only morphological states of C. albicans. The opaque form required for mating, the pseudohyphal cell, and the chlamydospore represent distinct cell types that form in response to specific genetic or environmental conditions. In addition, hyperextended buds can form as...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Whiteway M, Bachewich C Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Cytoskeletal elements in bacteria.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
All cytoskeletal elements known from eukaryotic cells are also present in bacteria, where they perform vital tasks in many aspects of the physiology of the cell. Bacterial tubulin (FtsZ), actin (MreB), and intermediate filament (IF) proteins are key elements in cell division, chromosome and plasmid segregation, and maintenance of proper cell shape, as well as in maintenance of cell polarity and assembly of intracellular organelle-like structures. Although similar tasks are performed by eukaryotic cytoskeletal elements, the individual functions of FtsZ, MreBs, and IFs are different from those performed by their eukaryot...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Graumann PL Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Heterotrimeric G protein signaling in filamentous fungi.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
Filamentous fungi are multicellular eukaryotic organisms known for nutrient recycling as well as for antibiotic and food production. This group of organisms also contains the most devastating plant pathogens and several important human pathogens. Since the first report of heterotrimeric G proteins in filamentous fungi in 1993, it has been demonstrated that G proteins are essential for growth, asexual and sexual development, and virulence in both animal and plant pathogenic filamentous species. Numerous G protein subunit and G protein-coupled receptor genes have been identified, many from whole-genome sequences. Several...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Li L, Wright SJ, Krystofova S, Park G, Borkovich KA Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals

Nonhomologous end-joining in bacteria: a microbial perspective.Email this article to a colleague. Save this article to My Clippings. Discuss or comment on this article.
In eukaryotic cells, repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) by the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway is critical for genomic stability. A functionally homologous repair apparatus, composed of Ku and a multifunctional DNA ligase (LigD), has recently been identified in many prokaryotes. Eukaryotic organisms employ a large number of factors to repair breaks by NHEJ. In contrast, the bacterial NHEJ complex is a two-component system that, despite its relative simplicity, possesses all of the break-recognition, end-processing, and ligation activities required to facilitate the complex task of DSB repair. Here, we r...
Source: Annual Review of Microbiology - January 1, 2007 Category: Microbiology Authors: Pitcher RS, Brissett NC, Doherty AJ Tags: Annu Rev Microbiol Source Type: journals